Elementary Algebra 2e PDF Download – OpenStax (Foundation)

Elementary Algebra 2e is OpenStax’s free, complete textbook for a one-semester foundation algebra course. It covers whole-number and fraction arithmetic, solving linear equations and inequalities, word-problem models, graphing lines, systems of equations, polynomials, factoring, rational expressions, radicals, and quadratic equations across 10 chapters. It is openly licensed under a Creative Commons licence and free to download as a PDF or read online, with no account or payment required.

This book is written for a genuine algebra beginner, not for someone brushing up on skills they already have — which makes it a strong fit for FSc, ICS, or FA students whose pre-university algebra feels shaky, and for anyone starting a BS Mathematics, BS Computer Science, or BS Information Technology program who needs a solid algebra foundation before Calculus. Every section ends with a large practice set, and the book’s own Answer Key lets you check your work without a teacher.

Book Overview

Chapter List

Chapter 1: Foundations

Difficulty: Easy · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: whole numbers and place value, algebra notation and order of operations, signed-number arithmetic, fractions, decimals, real numbers, properties of real numbers, systems of measurement

Chapter 1 rebuilds the arithmetic foundation the rest of the book assumes. It works through whole-number place value and divisibility rules, the vocabulary and order-of-operations rules used to read algebraic expressions, signed-number addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, fraction and decimal operations including converting between the two, and a first look at real numbers and the square-root symbol. It closes with the commutative, associative, distributive, identity, and inverse properties that justify every algebraic manipulation used later, and with the metric and U.S. measurement systems used throughout the book’s application problems.

Key Points:

• Order of operations: parentheses/grouping symbols, then exponents, then multiplication and division left-to-right, then addition and subtraction left-to-right — multiplication and division share priority, as do addition and subtraction.
• Same-sign integers add to a sum with that sign; different signs subtract and take the sign of the number with the larger absolute value.
• Equivalent Fractions Property: a/b = (a·c)/(b·c) for c ≠ 0 — the basis for simplifying fractions and finding common denominators.
• Distributive Property: a(b+c) = ab + ac, used to remove parentheses in every later chapter.
• An LCD is required to add or subtract fractions, but never to multiply or divide them.
• Division by zero is undefined, though zero divided by any nonzero number is 0.

Practice Tip: Before Chapter 2, time yourself on twenty mixed order-of-operations and signed-number problems without a calculator — if you’re still hesitating over −5 + 3 or 2 − (−4), that gap will slow down every equation you try to solve next.

Common Mistake: Treating “PEMDAS” as four strict, separate steps top-to-bottom instead of two paired steps — multiplication and division are performed together, left to right, and so are addition and subtraction. 20 ÷ 4 × 5 equals 25, not 1.

Important Questions:

• Simplify −8 + 5 using the rule for adding integers with different signs. The signs differ, so subtract to get 3 and keep the sign of the larger absolute value (8), giving −3.
• Use the Distributive Property to simplify 4(x − 3). Distribute the 4 across both terms: 4x − 12.

Chapter 2: Solving Linear Equations and Inequalities

Difficulty: Easy · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: properties of equality, variables and constants on both sides, general strategy for linear equations, fraction and decimal coefficients, solving a formula for a variable, linear inequalities

Chapter 2 teaches the balance-scale logic behind every equation: whatever operation you perform on one side, you must perform on the other. It builds from the single-step Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division Properties of Equality up to a General Strategy that clears parentheses, combines like terms, collects variables on one side and constants on the other, and isolates the variable with a coefficient of 1. It shows how to clear fraction or decimal coefficients before solving, how to solve a formula like d = rt for a specific letter, and how solving an inequality is identical — except that multiplying or dividing by a negative number reverses the inequality sign.

Key Points:

• Addition/Subtraction Properties of Equality: adding or subtracting the same number from both sides of a = b keeps it true.
• General Strategy for Solving Linear Equations: simplify each side (distribute, combine like terms) → collect variable terms on one side → collect constants on the other → make the coefficient 1 → check the solution.
• To clear fraction coefficients, multiply every term by the LCD of all the fractions before solving.
• d = rt relates distance, rate, and time; solved for time it becomes t = d/r.
• Multiplying or dividing an inequality by a negative number reverses the inequality sign; a positive number leaves it unchanged.

Practice Tip: Always finish by substituting your solution back into the ORIGINAL equation, not a simplified line partway through — that is the only check that catches an arithmetic slip made several steps earlier.

Common Mistake: Forgetting to flip the inequality sign when multiplying or dividing both sides by a negative number — for example, −2x > 6 becomes x < −3, not x > −3.

Important Questions:

• Solve 3(x − 2) = 2x + 5 for x, showing the General Strategy. Distribute: 3x − 6 = 2x + 5; subtract 2x: x − 6 = 5; add 6: x = 11.
• Solve the inequality −4x ≤ 12 for x. Divide both sides by −4 and flip the inequality: x ≥ −3.

Chapter 3: Math Models

Difficulty: Medium · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: problem-solving strategy, percent applications, mixture and coin applications, geometry (triangles, rectangles, Pythagorean Theorem), uniform motion, inequality applications

Chapter 3 applies the equation-solving skills of Chapter 2 to real situations, using one seven-step Problem-Solving Strategy throughout: read, identify the unknown, name it with a variable, translate into an equation, solve, check, and answer in a sentence. It covers percent increase and decrease, simple interest (I = Prt), discount and mark-up, coin and mixture problems built around a “number times value equals total value” table, geometry applications using triangle and rectangle formulas and the Pythagorean Theorem, uniform motion problems using distance = rate × time, and translating inequality word problems into algebra.

Key Points:

• The Problem-Solving Strategy is the same seven steps for every application in this chapter: read, identify, name, translate, solve, check, answer.
• Simple Interest: I = Prt, where P = principal, r = annual rate, t = time in years.
• Coin and mixture problems use number × value = total value, organized in a table before writing the equation.
• Pythagorean Theorem: a² + b² = c², where c is the hypotenuse of a right triangle.
• Rectangle formulas: perimeter P = 2L + 2W, area A = LW.
• Uniform motion: D = rt, usually organized in a rate/time/distance table for two scenarios.

Practice Tip: Draw the table before writing the equation for every coin, mixture, or motion problem in this chapter — the equation almost writes itself once the table’s rows and columns are filled in correctly.

Common Mistake: Writing the percent-change formula upside down — the amount of increase or decrease is always compared to the ORIGINAL amount, not the new one, when finding a percent.

Important Questions:

• A rectangular room has a perimeter of 36 feet and a length of 11 feet. What is its width? From P = 2L + 2W: 36 = 22 + 2W, so W = 7 feet.
• $2,000 is invested at a 4% annual simple interest rate for 3 years. How much interest is earned? I = Prt = 2000 × 0.04 × 3 = $240.

Chapter 4: Graphs

Difficulty: Easy · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: rectangular coordinate system, graphing linear equations, intercepts, slope, slope-intercept form, point-slope form, parallel and perpendicular lines, graphing linear inequalities

Chapter 4 introduces the rectangular coordinate system and builds every major way to graph and describe a line. It covers plotting solutions of a linear equation, graphing by finding the x- and y-intercepts, and computing slope as rise over run from a graph or from two points, including the special cases of a horizontal line’s slope (0) and a vertical line’s slope (undefined). It develops the slope-intercept form and the point-slope form for finding a line’s equation from a slope and a point, or from two points, states the slope conditions for parallel and perpendicular lines, and closes by graphing linear inequalities in two variables using a boundary line and a test point.

Key Points:

• Quadrant sign patterns: QI (+,+), QII (−,+), QIII (−,−), QIV (+,−).
• Slope formula from a graph: m = rise/run; a horizontal line has slope 0, a vertical line’s slope is undefined.
• Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b, where m is the slope and (0, b) is the y-intercept.
• Point-slope form: y − y₁ = m(x − x₁), used when you know a slope and one point, or two points.
• Parallel lines share the same slope (m₁ = m₂); perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals (m₁·m₂ = −1).
• To graph Ax + By = C, finding the x- and y-intercepts plus one more point is usually fastest.

Practice Tip: Look at an equation’s form before choosing a graphing method — one variable means a vertical or horizontal line, y already isolated means plot points or use slope-intercept, and Ax+By=C means use the intercepts. Matching the method to the form saves half the algebra.

Common Mistake: Confusing “slope 0” with “no slope” — a horizontal line has a defined slope of exactly 0, while a vertical line’s slope is undefined (not zero), because a run of 0 makes the rise/run fraction undefined.

Important Questions:

• Find the slope of the line through (2, 3) and (5, 9). m = (9−3)/(5−2) = 6/3 = 2.
• Write the equation, in slope-intercept form, of the line with slope −2 that passes through (1, 4). y − 4 = −2(x − 1), which simplifies to y = −2x + 6.

Chapter 5: Systems of Linear Equations

Difficulty: Medium · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: solving systems by graphing, substitution, elimination, applications with two unknowns, mixture applications, graphing systems of inequalities

Chapter 5 solves problems that need two equations and two unknowns at once — such as an architect balancing a window’s area and perimeter, or a banker splitting money between two investment funds. It presents three methods for solving a system: graphing, where the intersection point is the solution, parallel lines mean no solution, and identical lines mean infinitely many solutions; substitution, solving one equation for a variable and substituting into the other; and elimination, adding multiples of the equations to cancel a variable. It then applies the seven-step strategy from Chapter 3 to coin, mixture, and interest applications with two unknowns, and closes by graphing systems of linear inequalities as an overlapping shaded region.

Key Points:

• A system’s graphed lines intersect at one solution, run parallel with no solution, or coincide with infinitely many solutions.
• Substitution: solve one equation for a variable, substitute the resulting expression into the other equation, then solve.
• Elimination: multiply one or both equations so a variable’s coefficients become opposites, then add the equations to cancel that variable.
• Every solution must be checked in both original equations, not just the one it was found from.
• Graphing a system of inequalities means shading each inequality’s region separately; the system’s solution is only the overlap.

Practice Tip: When both equations are already in Ax+By=C form with no variable easily isolated, reach for elimination instead of substitution — forcing a fraction into a substitution step is where most sign errors creep in.

Common Mistake: Multiplying only one side of an equation when preparing to eliminate a variable — every term on both sides of that equation must be multiplied by the same number, or the two systems stop being equivalent.

Important Questions:

• Solve the system x + y = 10, x − y = 2 by elimination. Adding the equations gives 2x = 12, so x = 6; substituting back gives y = 4.
• How can you tell from two equations’ slopes and y-intercepts, without graphing, that a system has no solution? The lines have the same slope but different y-intercepts, so they are parallel and never intersect.

Chapter 6: Polynomials

Difficulty: Medium · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: monomials, binomials, trinomials, degree of a polynomial, properties of exponents, multiplying polynomials, special products, dividing monomials and polynomials, scientific notation

Chapter 6 defines monomials, binomials, trinomials, and polynomials in general, and the degree of a polynomial as the highest degree among its terms. It develops the Product, Power, and Product-to-a-Power properties of exponents, then uses them to multiply polynomials by the Distributive Property, the FOIL method for two binomials, and a vertical method for a trinomial by a binomial. Two special product patterns — the binomial square and the product of conjugates — are shown to save time over full FOIL. The chapter closes with the Quotient Property and Zero Exponent for dividing monomials, dividing a polynomial by a monomial term by term, and converting numbers to and from scientific notation.

Key Points:

• A polynomial’s degree is the highest sum-of-exponents among its terms; a constant alone has degree 0.
• Product Property of Exponents: am·an = am+n; Power Property: (am)n = am·n.
• FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last) multiplies two binomials; a trinomial times a binomial needs the full Distributive Property or the vertical method instead.
• Binomial Squares Pattern: (a+b)² = a² + 2ab + b² — square the first term, square the last, double their product for the middle term.
• Product of Conjugates: (a−b)(a+b) = a² − b², a difference of squares with no middle term.
• Zero Exponent: any nonzero a⁰ = 1.
• To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide every term of the polynomial by that monomial separately.

Practice Tip: FOIL only works for binomial × binomial — the moment either factor has three or more terms, switch to the Distributive Property or the vertical method, or terms get dropped.

Common Mistake: Squaring a binomial as just the sum of the squares — (a+b)² is NOT a²+b². The middle term 2ab is real and gets dropped constantly; always expand with the full pattern or FOIL.

Important Questions:

• Multiply (x + 5)(x − 3) using FOIL. x² − 3x + 5x − 15 = x² + 2x − 15.
• Simplify (2x³)(5x⁴) using the Product Property of Exponents. Multiply coefficients and add exponents: 2×5 = 10, x³·x⁴ = x⁷, giving 10x⁷.

Chapter 7: Factoring

Difficulty: Hard · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: greatest common factor, factoring by grouping, factoring trinomials, special products (perfect squares, differences of squares, sums/differences of cubes), general factoring strategy, solving quadratics by factoring

Chapter 7 treats factoring as multiplication in reverse. It starts with finding the Greatest Common Factor of a polynomial’s terms and factoring four-term expressions by grouping, then factors trinomials of the form x²+bx+c by finding two numbers that multiply to c and add to b, and trinomials of the form ax²+bx+c by trial and error or the “ac” method. It covers the special patterns for perfect-square trinomials, differences of squares, and sums or differences of cubes, then assembles all of these into one General Strategy for factoring any polynomial completely. The chapter ends by using the Zero Product Property to solve quadratic equations by factoring.

Key Points:

• To factor x²+bx+c, find two numbers that multiply to c and add to b; those numbers become the binomials’ last terms.
• The “ac” method for ax²+bx+c: find two numbers that multiply to ac and add to b, then split the middle term and factor by grouping.
• Difference of Squares: a²−b² = (a−b)(a+b) — a sum of squares never factors over the reals.
• Perfect Square Trinomial: check that the first and last terms are perfect squares AND the middle term equals 2ab before using the shortcut.
• Zero Product Property: if a·b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 (or both) — the entire reason factoring solves equations.
• General Strategy order: factor out the GCF first, then classify as binomial/trinomial/four-plus terms before picking a method.

Practice Tip: Always try to factor out a GCF FIRST, even from a trinomial — a hidden common factor is the single most common reason a “trial and error” factoring attempt fails to find a match.

Common Mistake: Trying to solve x²+5x=6 by the Zero Product Property before moving everything to one side — the equation must equal ZERO before factoring and applying the property; here it must first become x²+5x−6=0.

Important Questions:

• Factor x² + 7x + 12. Find two numbers multiplying to 12 and adding to 7: 3 and 4, giving (x+3)(x+4).
• Solve x² − 9 = 0 by factoring. Difference of squares: (x−3)(x+3) = 0, so x = 3 or x = −3.

Chapter 8: Rational Expressions and Equations

Difficulty: Hard · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: simplifying rational expressions, multiplying and dividing, adding and subtracting with common and unlike denominators, complex fractions, solving rational equations, proportions and similar figures, work and motion applications, direct and inverse variation

Chapter 8 extends fraction skills to rational expressions, which are fractions with polynomials in the numerator and denominator. It covers finding values that make an expression undefined, simplifying by factoring and dividing out common factors, multiplying and dividing rational expressions, and adding or subtracting them with common or unlike denominators using an LCD found by factoring. It shows two methods for simplifying complex (fraction-within-a-fraction) rational expressions, and a strategy for solving rational equations that always starts by excluding values that would make a denominator zero. The chapter closes with proportion and similar-figure applications, uniform motion and work-rate problems, and direct and inverse variation.

Key Points:

• A rational expression is undefined wherever its denominator equals zero — find these values before solving, so any matching “solution” can be discarded.
• Simplify a rational expression by factoring the numerator and denominator completely, then dividing out common factors — never by canceling terms that are only added or subtracted.
• (a−b)/(b−a) = −1 — recognizing this “opposite” pattern turns an apparently unfactorable expression into one that simplifies.
• To add or subtract rational expressions with unlike denominators, factor each denominator first to find the true LCD.
• Solving a rational equation means clearing every denominator by multiplying both sides by the LCD, then checking for extraneous solutions.
• Similar triangles have equal corresponding angles and proportional corresponding sides — the basis for every similar-figure application.

Practice Tip: After solving any rational equation, plug your answer back into the ORIGINAL denominators before declaring it a solution — if it makes any denominator zero, it is an extraneous solution and must be thrown out, even though the algebra used to find it was correct.

Common Mistake: Cross-canceling terms that are added or subtracted instead of multiplied — in (x+3)/(x+5), the x’s cannot be canceled because they are not common FACTORS of the whole numerator and denominator, only common terms.

Important Questions:

• For what value of x is the rational expression 5/(x−2) undefined? x = 2, since that makes the denominator zero.
• Simplify (x²−9)/(x+3). Factor the numerator as (x−3)(x+3), then cancel (x+3), leaving x−3 (x ≠ −3).

Chapter 9: Roots and Radicals

Difficulty: Medium · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: square roots, simplifying radicals, adding/subtracting/multiplying/dividing radicals, radical equations, higher-order roots, rational exponents

Chapter 9 introduces the square root and extends it to higher-order roots and rational exponents. It distinguishes the principal (positive) square root from a number’s two square roots, uses the Product and Quotient Properties to simplify radicals by pulling out perfect-square factors, and adds, subtracts, multiplies, and divides radical expressions — including using the FOIL method and conjugates on binomials containing radicals. Solving a radical equation means isolating the radical, squaring both sides, and always checking for extraneous solutions the squaring step can introduce. The chapter then generalizes to nth roots and shows how rational exponents are just another notation for the same roots, governed by the same exponent properties from Chapter 6.

Key Points:

• The square root of a negative number is not a real number; every positive number has two square roots, and the positive one is the “principal” square root.
• Product Property of Square Roots: √(ab) = √a · √b for a, b ≥ 0 — the tool for simplifying by pulling out perfect-square factors.
• A simplified square root has no perfect-square factors left inside it, no fraction inside it, and no radical left in a denominator.
• Solving a radical equation always risks an extraneous solution from the squaring step — every candidate answer must be checked in the original equation.
• For an odd index n, n√(an) = a for any a; for an even index n, n√(an) = |a|.
• Rational exponents follow the same Product, Power, and Quotient Properties as whole-number exponents from Chapter 6.

Practice Tip: Whenever you square both sides of an equation to remove a radical, treat every “solution” as a suspect until you have substituted it back into the ORIGINAL radical equation — squaring can introduce an answer that was never really a solution.

Common Mistake: Writing √(a²+b²) as a+b — a square root does not distribute over addition or subtraction; √(9+16) = √25 = 5, not √9+√16 = 3+4 = 7.

Important Questions:

• Simplify √72 by pulling out perfect-square factors. 72 = 36×2, so √72 = √36·√2 = 6√2.
• Solve √(x+3) = 5, and check for extraneous solutions. Squaring both sides: x+3 = 25, so x = 22; checking, √25 = 5, confirming x = 22 is valid.

Chapter 10: Quadratic Equations

Difficulty: Hard · Elementary Algebra · Key topics: Square Root Property, completing the square, the Quadratic Formula, the discriminant, quadratic applications, graphing parabolas

Chapter 10 gathers every tool for solving a quadratic equation into one place. It starts with the Square Root Property for equations already in the form x²=k, then Completing the Square, which turns any quadratic into that form, and the Quadratic Formula, which solves any ax²+bx+c=0 directly. The discriminant b²−4ac tells how many real solutions to expect before you solve. The chapter applies quadratics to area, the Pythagorean Theorem, and projectile-motion problems, and finishes by graphing a parabola using its axis of symmetry, vertex, and intercepts, and reading off its minimum or maximum value.

Key Points:

• Square Root Property: if x² = k and k ≥ 0, then x = ±√k.
• Quadratic Formula: x = (−b ± √(b²−4ac)) / 2a, solves any quadratic in standard form.
• The discriminant b²−4ac predicts the number of real solutions: positive gives 2, zero gives 1, negative gives none.
• Strategy order: try factoring first, then the Square Root Property if the equation fits ax²=k, and the Quadratic Formula for anything else.
• A parabola’s axis of symmetry is the vertical line x = −b/2a, and the vertex lies on that line.
• Projectile motion: h = −16t² + v₀t, where v₀ is the initial velocity in feet per second.

Practice Tip: Before reaching for the Quadratic Formula, spend a few seconds checking whether the trinomial factors easily or fits ax²=k — those shortcuts are often much faster and less error-prone than the full formula.

Common Mistake: Forgetting the ± sign after taking a square root, or writing only one solution of a quadratic — a quadratic equation almost always has two answers, and dropping one is the single most common quadratic-equation error.

Important Questions:

• Use the discriminant to determine how many real solutions 2x²+3x+5=0 has, without solving it. b²−4ac = 9−40 = −31, which is negative, so the equation has no real solutions.
• Find the x-coordinate of the vertex of y = x² − 4x + 1. x = −b/2a = −(−4)/2(1) = 2.

Download Elementary Algebra 2e PDF (Free)

This book is free from its official source, OpenStax. Click below to download the complete PDF — a free web-based reader edition (with per-section, linkable pages) is also available on the OpenStax site if you’d rather read online.

How to Study This Book

Chapters 1 and 2 are true prerequisites for everything else — Chapter 1’s review of signed numbers, fractions, and order of operations, and Chapter 2’s equation-solving properties, are used without re-explanation in every later chapter.

Chapter 3 (Math Models) is best read right after Chapter 2, before moving to graphing, since it is really “Chapter 2’s equations, applied,” and it builds the habit of using a Problem-Solving Strategy that returns in Chapters 5 and 8.

Chapters 4 and 5 (Graphs, Systems of Linear Equations) form a pair — Chapter 5’s graphing method for systems assumes you can already graph a single line from Chapter 4.

Chapters 6 and 7 (Polynomials, Factoring) should be read in order — every factoring technique in Chapter 7 depends on the exponent rules and polynomial multiplication built in Chapter 6, and Chapter 7’s final section (solving quadratics by factoring) is a direct preview of Chapter 10.

Chapter 8 (Rational Expressions) leans on Chapter 7’s factoring at almost every step — a student who moves ahead without solid factoring skills will struggle here more than anywhere else in the book.

Chapter 9 (Roots and Radicals) can be read somewhat independently of Chapters 6–8, though its rational-exponents section (9.8) connects directly back to Chapter 6’s exponent properties.

Chapter 10 (Quadratic Equations) is the natural capstone: it reuses factoring from Chapter 7, square roots from Chapter 9, and graphing skills from Chapter 4, so a student who has worked through the book in order will find it mostly a synthesis rather than new material.

If your course only covers part of the book — common for a one-semester foundation or bridge course — Chapters 1 through 7 form a complete, self-contained “algebra basics” sequence even without Chapters 8 through 10.

Used In These Programs

This book is used as a foundation-level Elementary Algebra course for students preparing for university-level mathematics in: BS Computer Science · BS Information Technology. It is also commonly used as a bridge or refresher course for FSc, ICS, and FA students entering a BS Mathematics or general science program, and by anyone reviewing algebra before Calculus. Browse all Algebra books or all Mathematics books.

Who Should Read This

Elementary Algebra 2e is written for a genuine beginner — a student who has never solved an equation before, or who needs to rebuild algebra skills that have gone rusty since school. It assumes only basic arithmetic with whole numbers, fractions, and decimals (which Chapter 1 itself reviews from scratch) and does not assume any prior exposure to variables, graphing, or equation-solving. This makes it a strong fit for a Pakistani FSc, ICS, or FA student who found pre-university algebra shaky and wants a slower, more thoroughly explained pass before tackling BS-level mathematics, and equally useful as a standalone remedial or bridge course at the start of a BS Computer Science or BS Information Technology degree. It is not the right book for a student who already solves linear equations and factors trinomials comfortably — such a student is better served starting directly with Calculus Volume 1, also free on this site, once Chapters 1 through 7 here feel like pure review rather than new material.

Applicable Universities

This book is useful for students preparing to enter BS programs at Pakistani universities including Punjab University, Virtual University, COMSATS, FAST, UET, NUST, and other HEC-recognized institutions — particularly students whose FSc, ICS, or FA background leaves gaps in algebra fundamentals before starting university-level Calculus or Discrete Mathematics courses.

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Elementary Algebra 2e is the natural starting point on this site for anyone who needs to rebuild their algebra foundation before tackling university-level mathematics — its 10 chapters and large practice sets cover everything from signed numbers through quadratic equations. Browse more Mathematics books to continue your study path.

Elementary Algebra 2e, by Lynn Marecek, MaryAnne Anthony-Smith, and Andrea Honeycutt Mathis. OpenStax, Rice University. Free under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 licence. Access for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/elementary-algebra-2e